Key Critical Minerals in Mining: Rare Earth Elements, Lithium, Cobalt

Critical minerals play a vital role due to their significance in modern technology, infrastructure, and defence applications. These minerals are deemed critical due to their scarcity, economic importance, and the strategic value they hold. Here are some key critical minerals in the mining industry:

Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are a group of 17 chemically similar elements that are crucial in various high-tech applications and green technologies. Despite their name, some of these elements are not particularly rare in the Earth’s crust, but they are often found in low concentrations, making their extraction and processing challenging and economically significant. The 17 rare earth elements include:

1. Lanthanides (Atomic Numbers 57-71):
   • Cerium (Ce)
   • Praseodymium (Pr)
   • Neodymium (Nd)
   • Promethium (Pm)
   • Samarium (Sm)
   • Europium (Eu)
   • Gadolinium (Gd)
   • Terbium (Tb)
   • Dysprosium (Dy)
   • Holmium (Ho)
   • Erbium (Er)
   • Thulium (Tm)
   • Ytterbium (Yb)
   • Lutetium (Lu)
2. Scandium (Sc) and Yttrium (Y):
   • While not part of the lanthanides, scandium and yttrium are often included in discussions about rare earth elements due to their similar properties and applications.

Key Applications of Rare Earth Elements:

1. Permanent Magnets:
   • Neodymium and dysprosium are essential in the production of powerful magnets used in electric motors (e.g., in electric vehicles), wind turbines, and various electronics.
2. Catalysts:
   • Cerium and other REEs are used as catalysts in industrial processes, automobile catalytic converters, and fuel cells.
3. Phosphors:
   • Europium, terbium, and other REEs are used in the production of phosphors for fluorescent lamps, LED lights, and cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays.
4. Glass and Polishing Compounds:
   • Cerium oxide is used in the glass industry for polishing optical lenses and various glass manufacturing processes.
5. Alloys:
   • REEs are used in various alloys to enhance properties like strength, heat resistance, and corrosion resistance.
6. Nuclear Applications:
   • Europium is used in control rods for nuclear reactors, while other REEs are used in shielding materials and nuclear fuel processing.
7. Electronics:
   • REEs are integral components in various electronic devices, including smartphones, laptops, and advanced medical equipment.
8. Defence and Aerospace:
   • REEs are used in the production of guidance systems, radar systems, and armour for military vehicles.

Due to the increasing demand for REEs, ensuring a stable and sustainable supply chain has become a global concern. Efforts are being made to diversify sources, improve recycling techniques, and explore alternative materials to reduce reliance on specific mining regions.

Lithium

Lithium is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is the lightest metal and the lightest solid element under standard conditions. Here are some key points about lithium:

1. Physical Properties:

• Atomic Symbol (Chemical Symbol): Li
• Atomic Number: 3
• Atomic Weight: 6.94
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silvery-white

2. Occurrence:

• Lithium is relatively rare in Earth’s crust and is typically found in trace amounts in various minerals and brine deposits. It is more commonly found in countries like Chile, Argentina, Australia, and China.

3. Applications:

• Lithium-ion Batteries: One of the most significant applications of lithium is in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. These are used in portable electronic devices (such as smartphones and laptops) and have become crucial in the transition to electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems.
• Pharmaceuticals: Lithium carbonate and lithium citrate are used as medications to treat bipolar disorder and depression.
• Ceramics and Glass: Lithium compounds are used in ceramics and glass production to improve thermal expansion properties.
• Greases and Lubricants: Lithium-based greases are commonly used in automotive and industrial applications.
• Alloys: Lithium is used in some aluminium alloys, particularly in the aerospace industry, to improve strength and decrease density.

4. Environmental Considerations:

• The extraction and production of lithium can have environmental impacts, especially in regions with water scarcity concerns. Sustainable mining practices and recycling efforts are being explored to mitigate these issues.

5. Growing Demand:

• The demand for lithium has surged in recent years due to the increasing popularity of electric vehicles and the development of energy storage solutions for renewable energy sources. This has led to efforts to expand lithium production and exploration.

6. Future Prospects:

• Research is ongoing to develop new battery technologies and improve the efficiency and energy density of lithium-ion batteries. Additionally, efforts are being made to explore alternative materials for energy storage.

7. Geopolitical Considerations:

• Due to the strategic importance of lithium in the transition to greener technologies, there are geopolitical considerations regarding the control of lithium resources.

Lithium plays a crucial role in the transition towards a more sustainable and electrified future, and ongoing research and innovation in lithium-related technologies are expected to continue.

Cobalt

Cobalt is a chemical element with the symbol Co and atomic number 27. It is a hard, lustrous, silver-grey metal that belongs to the transition metals group. Here are some key points about cobalt:

1. Physical Properties:

• Atomic Symbol (Chemical Symbol): Co
• Atomic Number: 27
• Atomic Weight: 58.93
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silver-gray

2. Occurrence:

• Cobalt is relatively rare in the Earth’s crust, usually found in combination with other elements, primarily in minerals such as cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite. Major cobalt-producing countries include the Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia, and Canada.

3. Applications:

• Lithium-ion Batteries: Cobalt is a crucial component in the cathode of lithium-ion batteries, particularly in high-energy-density applications like electric vehicles and smartphones. However, there is ongoing research to reduce or replace cobalt in batteries due to concerns about its supply chain and environmental impact.
• Superalloys: Cobalt-based superalloys are used in aerospace applications, including aircraft engines and gas turbines, due to their high strength, corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand high temperatures.
• Catalysts: Cobalt compounds are used as catalysts in a variety of industrial processes, including the production of petroleum, plastics, and chemicals.
• Magnetic Alloys: Cobalt alloys are used in the production of magnets, especially in high-temperature applications and specialized magnetic materials.
• Cemented Carbides: Cobalt is a critical binder material in the production of cemented carbides, which are used in cutting tools, mining and drilling equipment, and wear-resistant applications.

4. Environmental and Ethical Considerations:

• There are environmental and ethical concerns associated with cobalt mining, particularly in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where a significant portion of global cobalt production occurs. Efforts are being made to address issues related to child labour, unsafe working conditions, and environmental impacts in the mining industry.

5. Geopolitical Considerations:

• The global supply chain for cobalt has led to geopolitical considerations, as some regions have a dominant role in its production.

6. Recycling:

• Recycling efforts for cobalt-containing materials, especially in spent batteries, are increasing in importance to reduce the reliance on primary mining.

Cobalt’s significance in technology, aerospace, and energy applications makes it a strategically important element. Ongoing research is focused on finding alternative materials and technologies to reduce the dependence on cobalt, improve recycling methods, and address environmental and ethical concerns in its production.

Platinum Group Elements (PGEs)

Platinum Group Elements (PGEs) are a group of six chemically similar elements that belong to the platinum group in the periodic table. They are characterized by their remarkable physical and chemical properties, which make them highly valuable and versatile in various industrial applications. The six Platinum Group Elements are:

1. Platinum (Pt):
   • Platinum is a dense, malleable, and ductile metal with a silver-white colour. It is one of the rarest elements in the Earth’s crust.
2. Palladium (Pd):
   • Palladium is a lustrous, silvery-white metal known for its high corrosion resistance and catalytic properties. It is used in a variety of industrial applications.
3. Rhodium (Rh):
   • Rhodium is a rare, silvery-white metal that is highly reflective and corrosion-resistant. It is primarily used in catalytic converters for automobiles.
4. Iridium (Ir):
   • Iridium is a dense, brittle, and corrosion-resistant metal with a silvery-white appearance. It is used in applications that require high durability and resistance to extreme conditions.
5. Ruthenium (Ru):
   • Ruthenium is a hard, silvery-white metal known for its exceptional wear resistance. It is used in various electrical contacts, as well as in jewellery alloys.
6. Osmium (Os):
   • Osmium is the densest naturally occurring element and has a bluish-silvery appearance. It is used in alloys for fountain pen tips, electrical contacts, and other applications requiring hardness and durability.

Key Applications of Platinum Group Elements (PGEs):

1. Catalytic Converters:
   • PGEs, particularly platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are vital components in catalytic converters used in automobiles to reduce harmful emissions.
2. Electronics:
   • PGEs are used in various electronic applications, including in the production of hard disk drives, as well as in semiconductors and sensors.
3. Jewellery and Ornaments:
   • Platinum, along with palladium and other PGEs, is used in high-quality jewellery and decorative items due to its durability, resistance to tarnish, and lustrous appearance.
4. Medical Devices:
   • PGEs are used in medical implants, such as pacemakers and surgical instruments, due to their biocompatibility and resistance to corrosion.
5. Fuel Cells:
   • Platinum and other PGEs are used as catalysts in proton exchange membrane fuel cells, which are a type of clean energy technology.
6. Aerospace Industry:
   • PGEs find applications in aerospace components, including in jet engines and spacecraft due to their high-temperature stability and corrosion resistance.

Due to their scarcity and critical applications, PGEs are highly valuable in various industries. Efforts are being made to explore alternative materials and improve recycling techniques to reduce dependence on primary mining. Additionally, advances in technology are driving research into more efficient use of PGEs in various applications.

Graphite

Graphite is a naturally occurring form of crystalline carbon. It is a non-metal with unique properties that make it valuable in various industrial applications. Here are some key points about graphite:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: C
• Atomic Number: 6
• Atomic Weight: 12.01
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Color: Black to dark gray

2. Crystal Structure:

• Graphite has a layered crystal structure in which carbon atoms are arranged in flat, honeycomb-like layers. These layers can slide over one another, giving graphite its characteristic lubricating properties.

3. Occurrence:

• Graphite is found in metamorphic rocks and is often associated with other minerals like quartz, mica, and feldspar. Major graphite-producing countries include China, India, Brazil, and Canada.

4. Applications:

• Lubricants: Due to their low friction properties, graphite is used as a dry lubricant in various applications, including machinery, locks, and automotive parts.
• Refractories: Graphite’s high melting point and resistance to heat and chemical reactions make it valuable in the production of refractory materials used in high-temperature applications, such as in furnaces and foundries.
• Electrodes: Graphite is used in the production of electrodes for electric arc furnaces in the steelmaking industry. It is also used in the production of anodes for aluminium smelting.
• Batteries: Natural graphite and synthetic graphite are used in the production of anodes for lithium-ion batteries, which are widely used in portable electronic devices and electric vehicles.
• Pencils: The “lead” in pencils is actually a mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite leaves a mark on paper due to its ability to easily shear off in thin layers.
• Nuclear Reactors: High-purity graphite is used as a moderator in some nuclear reactors to slow down neutrons and control the nuclear fission process.
• Polymers and Plastics: Graphite is used as a filler in polymers and plastics to enhance properties like electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and mechanical strength.

5. Synthetic Graphite:

• In addition to natural graphite, synthetic graphite is produced through high-temperature processes. It is often used in high-tech applications like aerospace components, nuclear reactors, and electronics.

6. Environmental Considerations:

• The mining and processing of graphite can have environmental impacts, particularly in regions with lax environmental regulations. Efforts are being made to develop more sustainable and environmentally friendly graphite production methods.

Graphite’s unique combination of properties makes it a versatile material in various industrial applications, from lubricants to high-tech electronics. Ongoing research and technological advancements aim to further improve its properties and expand its applications.

Indium

Indium is a chemical element with the symbol In and atomic number 49. It is a soft, silvery-white metal that is relatively rare in Earth’s crust. Here are some key points about indium:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: In
• Atomic Number: 49
• Atomic Weight: 114.82
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silvery-white

2. Occurrence:

• Indium is considered a relatively rare element and is typically found in low concentrations in ores of other metals like zinc, lead, and tin. Major indium-producing countries include China, South Korea, and Canada.

3. Applications:

• Electronics: Indium is widely used in the electronics industry. It is a key component in the production of transparent conductive coatings, which are used in touchscreens, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and thin-film solar cells.
• Solder Alloys: Indium is used in a variety of low-melting-point solder alloys, which are used in the assembly of electronic components. These alloys are particularly valuable for applications where heat-sensitive components are involved.
• Semiconductors: Indium compounds, such as indium phosphide (InP) and indium antimonide (InSb), are used in the production of high-performance semiconductors, especially in applications like photodetectors, lasers, and transistors.
• Nuclear Industry: Indium-115, a stable isotope of indium, is used as a radiation source in portable X-ray devices.
• Medical Applications: Indium is used in certain medical procedures, such as labelling white blood cells for imaging, and in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) used in some medical implants.
• Thermal Interface Materials: Indium is used in thermal interface materials to improve the thermal conductivity between electronic components and heat sinks.

4. Environmental Considerations:

• The environmental impact of indium mining and processing is generally lower compared to some other metals. However, like any mining activity, it can still have ecological consequences that need to be managed responsibly.

5. Future Prospects:

• As the demand for electronics continues to grow, particularly in areas like renewable energy and electric vehicles, the demand for indium is expected to remain strong. Research is ongoing to explore alternative materials and technologies to reduce reliance on indium.

Indium’s unique properties, particularly its ability to conduct electricity while being transparent, make it an indispensable material in various high-tech applications. Efforts are being made to ensure sustainable sourcing and responsible use of indium to meet the demands of a technologically advancing world.

Gallium

Gallium is a chemical element with the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. It is a silvery-blue, soft metal that possesses some unique properties. Here are some key points about gallium:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: Ga
• Atomic Number: 31
• Atomic Weight: 69.72
• State at Room Temperature: Solid (melts at approximately 30°C or 86°F)
• Colour: Silvery-blue

2. Occurrence:

• Gallium is relatively rare in Earth’s crust and is typically found in trace amounts in various ores, particularly in aluminium and zinc ores. It is usually obtained as a byproduct of aluminium and zinc production.

3. Unique Property:

• Gallium has the remarkable property of being able to melt just above room temperature, which is quite unusual for metals. This low melting point makes it useful in a variety of applications.

4. Applications:

• Semiconductors: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other gallium-based compounds are used in the production of high-frequency semiconductors, LEDs (light-emitting diodes), and solar cells. GaAs are known for their high electron mobility and thermal stability, making them valuable in high-speed electronic devices.
• Liquid Metal Alloys: Due to its low melting point, gallium is used in some special alloys, such as gallium-indium-tin alloy (often referred to as Galinstan). These alloys are used in applications like thermometers, heat exchange systems, and certain experimental cooling systems.
• Nuclear Applications: Gallium-67, a radioactive isotope of gallium, is used in medical imaging for detecting and tracking certain types of cancer.
• Catalysts: Gallium-based catalysts are used in various chemical reactions, including in the production of petrochemicals.
• Optics and Photonics: Gallium is used in the production of laser diodes, which find applications in telecommunications, barcode scanners, and laser pointers.

5. Environmental Considerations:

• Gallium mining and production processes typically have lower environmental impacts compared to some other metals. However, like any mining activity, it is important to manage its extraction responsibly.

6. Future Prospects:

• As technology advances and the demand for high-frequency electronic devices continues to grow, gallium’s importance in the semiconductor industry is expected to remain significant.

Gallium’s unique properties and its applications in various high-tech industries make it a valuable element. Research and innovation in gallium-related technologies are ongoing to further expand its applications and improve its efficiency in existing uses.

Tellurium

Tellurium is a chemical element with the symbol Te and atomic number 52. It is a brittle, silvery-white metalloid that is often found in combination with other elements, primarily in ores of copper, gold, and silver. Here are some key points about tellurium:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: Te
• Atomic Number: 52
• Atomic Weight: 127.60
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silvery-white

2. Occurrence:

• Tellurium is relatively rare in Earth’s crust and is typically found in low concentrations in ores of metals like copper, gold, and silver. It is usually obtained as a byproduct of copper and lead production.

3. Applications:

• Semiconductors: Tellurium is used in the production of certain types of semiconductors, including cadmium telluride (CdTe) and bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3). CdTe is used in thin-film solar cells, while Bi2Te3 is used in thermoelectric applications for power generation and cooling.
• Alloys: Tellurium is used in the production of various alloys, including lead telluride (PbTe), which is used in infrared detectors and thermoelectric materials.
• Photovoltaic Cells: Cadmium telluride is a key material in thin-film solar cells, which are a type of photovoltaic technology used in solar panels.
• Optoelectronics: Tellurium-based compounds are used in devices like infrared detectors, lasers, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
• Catalysts: Tellurium compounds are used as catalysts in various chemical reactions.

4. Environmental Considerations:

• The environmental impact of tellurium mining and production is generally lower compared to some other metals. However, like any mining activity, it can still have ecological consequences that need to be managed responsibly.

5. Future Prospects:

• As the demand for renewable energy sources continues to grow, particularly in the solar energy sector, the demand for tellurium is expected to remain strong. Research is ongoing to explore alternative materials and technologies to reduce reliance on tellurium.

Tellurium’s unique properties and its applications in renewable energy and electronics make it a valuable element. Efforts are being made to ensure sustainable sourcing and responsible use of tellurium to meet the demands of a technologically advancing world.

Antimony

Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb and atomic number 51. It is a lustrous, silvery-grey metalloid that is commonly found in nature. Here are some key points about antimony:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: Sb
• Atomic Number: 51
• Atomic Weight: 121.76
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silvery-gray

2. Occurrence:

• Antimony is relatively common in Earth’s crust and is often found in association with minerals containing other elements like sulphur, lead, and silver. Major antimony-producing countries include China, Russia, and Bolivia.

3. Applications:

• Flame Retardants: Antimony compounds, particularly antimony trioxide, are used as flame retardants in various materials, including plastics, textiles, and coatings. They work by suppressing the spread of flames in case of a fire.
• Batteries: Antimony is used in lead-acid batteries, which are commonly used in vehicles and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
• Alloys: Antimony is used as an alloying element to improve the hardness and strength of metals like lead. One well-known alloy is type metal, which is used in printing.
• Semiconductors: Antimony compounds are used in some types of semiconductors, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and gallium antimonide (GaSb), for applications like infrared detectors.
• Medicine: Antimony compounds have been used historically in medicine, although their use has decreased due to their toxicity. They were used to treat conditions like parasitic infections.

4. Environmental and Health Considerations:

• Antimony and its compounds can be toxic, particularly in higher concentrations. Efforts are made to handle and dispose of antimony-containing materials responsibly to prevent environmental and health risks.

5. Future Prospects:

• As technology advances, there is ongoing research to find alternative materials and technologies to replace or reduce the use of antimony, particularly in applications with potential environmental and health concerns.

Antimony’s flame-retardant properties, as well as its role in lead-acid batteries and alloys, make it a valuable element in various industrial applications. Efforts are being made to ensure sustainable sourcing and responsible use of antimony to minimize its environmental and health impacts.

Vanadium

Vanadium is a chemical element with the symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a silvery-grey, hard transition metal known for its strength, durability, and high melting point. Here are some key points about vanadium:

1. Physical Properties:

• Chemical Symbol: V
• Atomic Number: 23
• Atomic Weight: 50.94
• State at Room Temperature: Solid
• Colour: Silvery-gray

2. Occurrence:

• Vanadium is relatively rare in Earth’s crust and is often found in minerals like vanadinite, carnotite, and magnetite. It is also found in some iron ores and in fossil fuel deposits.

3. Applications:

• Alloys: Vanadium is primarily used as an alloying element to improve the strength and toughness of steel. High-strength vanadium steel is used in applications such as aerospace components, automotive parts, and construction materials.
• Energy Storage: Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are a type of energy storage system that uses vanadium-based electrolytes. They are used for large-scale energy storage in grid applications and renewable energy integration.
• Chemical Catalysts: Vanadium compounds are used as catalysts in various chemical reactions, including the production of sulfuric acid.
• Aerospace Industry: Vanadium alloys are used in aerospace applications, particularly in the production of jet engines and other critical components.
• Nuclear Industry: Vanadium is used as a structural material in some nuclear reactors due to its high strength and resistance to corrosion.

4. Environmental Considerations:

• The mining and production of vanadium can have environmental impacts, and efforts are made to minimize these impacts through responsible mining practices and waste management.

5. Health Considerations:

• Vanadium is an essential trace element for some organisms, including humans, but it can be toxic in larger amounts. It is important to handle vanadium compounds safely.

6. Future Prospects:

• As the demand for high-strength steel and energy storage solutions continues to grow, the importance of vanadium is expected to increase. Ongoing research is focused on developing more efficient and cost-effective vanadium technologies.

Vanadium’s unique combination of properties, including its strength and its role in energy storage, makes it a valuable element in various industrial applications. Efforts are being made to ensure sustainable sourcing and responsible use of vanadium to meet the demands of a technologically advancing world.